This invention relates to novel sol-gel calcium phosphate, in particular, hydroxyapatite, ceramic coatings and processes of making same at low temperature. Such coatings are useful, inter alia, for dental implants and other bone-metal contact appliances.
Osseointegration, or development of mechanical strength between an implant and bone, decides the success or failure of the implantation procedure. The implant will fail if good osseointegration is not achieved. Considerable research has been conducted to address this issue, primarily for dental and orthopaedic implants. The explored approaches generally involve modification of the surface and/or shape of the implant to facilitate the process of osseointegration.
Although there is no universally accepted solution to osseointegration, the concept of new, in-growing bone interlocking with a macroporous surface of the implant has attracted increasing interest among researchers and practitioners. The Endopore Dental Implant System, a Canadian invention marketed by Innova Corp. of Toronto, is one example of such surface-modified implant, wherein bone grows into the void space between sintered spheres of titanium alloy. For early strength development in such systems it is critical that bone in-growth into the pores is relatively rapid.
One promising approach is to use ceramics and specifically a sol-gel process to produce the ceramic. A sol-gel (SG) process provides superior chemical and physical homogeneity of the final ceramic product compared to other routes, such as solid-state synthesis, wet precipitation, or hydrothermal formation. The SG process allows the desired ceramic phase to synthesize at temperatures much lower than some of the alternate processes referred to above. In the SG coating process, substrate metal degradation due to thermally-induced phase transformations, microstructure modification or oxidation, is avoided. SG widens green-shaping capability, for example, and it is a very convenient method for deposition of ceramic coatings. The SG ceramic coating process has demonstrated a better structural integrity, purity and phase composition than the conventional methods, such as thermal spraying. The SG process also offers a cheaper and easier-to-form alternative for bioactive coating uses.
Hydroxyapatite (HA, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) ceramics belong to a class of calcium phosphate (CaP)-based materials, which have long been widely used as bone substitutes [1-3]. Recently, HA has been used for a variety of biomedical applications, including matrices for drug release control [4-6]. Due to the chemical similarity between HA and mineralized bone, synthetic HA exhibits strong affinity to host hard tissues. However, poor mechanical properties, e.g. low strength and toughness, restrict monolithic HA applications to those that require little or no load-bearing parts. HA coatings on metallic substrates (titanium alloys), offer great improvement in orthopaedic and dental applications [7-10]. Other members of the family of CaP-based materials, such as dicalcium phosphate (CaHPO4.2H2O) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2), have also been used for the same purpose.
Sol-gel (SG) processing of CaP allows molecular-level mixing of the calcium and phosphor precursors [11-23], which improves chemical homogeneity of the resulting calcium phosphate, e.g. in particular HA, in comparison with conventional methods such as solid state reactions [24], wet precipitation [25,26], and hydrothermal synthesis [27]. The versatility of the SG method opens an opportunity to form thin film coatings in a rather simple process, and provides an alternative to thermal spraying which is currently widely used for biomedical applications [21, 28]. Numerous reports [29-31] in the prior art have indicated decomposition of the plasma sprayed HA to form other phases, such as tetracalcium phosphate, calcium oxide, and amorphous calcium phosphate. Some of these compounds are undesirable due to fast dissolution in vivo. Additionally, severe cracking of the plasma-sprayed layer (an nearest feature of plasma sprayed ceramics) frequently leads to accelerated implant failure.
The SG process provides significantly milder conditions of the synthesis of calcium phosphate films. This results in a much better structural integrity whereas the defects originated from plasma spraying can be largely avoided [28]. Furthermore, the lower temperature synthesis particularly benefits the metal substrates. However, thermal treatment of calcium phosphate, such as HA, sol-gel films under vacuum is frequently required to avoid metal oxidation. This leads to structural instability of the HA coating (i.e., evolution of structural water under vacuum environment) during thermal treatment. At temperatures below xcx9c400xc2x0 C., further oxidation of the underlying Ti or Ti alloy is negligible due to the surface presence of a natural protective oxide layer [32, 33].
Existing sol-gel hydroxyapatite (HA) synthesis methods require calcination temperatures higher than 500xc2x0 C. to develop a well-crystallized HA phase. A high degree of HA crystallinity is required for bioactive applications, because partially crystalline, or amorphous calcium phosphate, such as HA, coatings are rapidly resorbed by living tissue. Metal alkoxides such as calcium diethoxide and phosphorus esters (for example, trialkyl phosphites and trialkyl phosphates), albeit expensive, are used as Ca and P precursors, respectively, in SG synthesis of CaP. However, these precursors are hygroscopic. This makes it necessary that the sol preparation to be conducted at a controlled (i.e. water-free) atmosphere. Furthermore, the inherent low hydrolysis activity of the trialkyl phosphates requires a prolonged time period for HA formation. For a highly-active phosphite, an aging time period over at least 24 hours is necessary to form the apatitic structure. The loss of the alkoxy phosphorus compounds due to their volatility also leads to the formation of non-stoichiometric products which are non-desirable for bioactive applications. Although the use of other phosphorus compounds, such as phenyldichlorophosphine, offers some improvement in this respect, a much higher temperature, for example,  greater than 800xc2x0 C., is required to form a pure, crystallized HA. If the HA coating, or other CaP coating, is being processed, this temperature can easily damage the underlying metallic substrate, in particular Ti, which is one of the most commonly used metals for implants. Another shortcoming is that synthesized HA cannot be in-situ combined with bioactive polymers, or other organic materials.
The following is a brief review of pertinent literature in this field. Takahashi et al. [22] developed a gel route using calcium nitrate and phosphonoacetic acid (HOOCCH2PO(OH)2) in an aqueous solution and obtained a pure HA powder at 700xc2x0 C. The crystallinity of HA increased with temperature up to 1100xc2x0 C. Chai et al. [28] compared two calcium precursors, namely calcium diethoxide and calcium propionate, reacted with triethyl phosphite to form HA coating. They found that HA phase appeared at 500xc2x0 C. for calcium propionate solution, but no HA formed when calcium ethoxide was used. However, they did not explain the influence of chemical nature of the precursors on phase formation.
Qiu et al. [35] used calcium nitrate and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4) to synthesize HA in highly basic solution. They obtained HA at calcination temperatures of 400xc2x0 C.-1100xc2x0 C. and indicated that the crystallinity of the HA improved with increasing temperature.
Haddow et al. [23] used calcium acetate with a number of phosphorus precursors, i.e. phosphoric acid (H3PO4), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), and triethyl phosphite for HA coating applications. They found the films prepared from triethyl phosphite and calcium acetate showed the best wetting characteristic and the temperature required to form an apatitic phase is greater than 600xc2x0 C.
Lopatin et al. [37] used hydrated solution of N-butyl acid phosphate mixed with calcium nitrate tetrahydrate dissolved in 2-methoxyethanol to synthesize HA. The authors inidcated that HA phase was able to develop at a temperature as low as 300xc2x0 C. However, the crystallinity of the HA phase was rather poor and improved only when the heat treatment temperature was above 500xc2x0 C. However, increase in the firing temperature caused an increase of the amount of CaO and tricalcium phosphate, which are non-desirable impurity phases if present in mixture with HA.
Weng et al. [38] synthesized HA using a mixed ethanol solution of calcium nitrate and phosphorous pentoxide. A highly crystalline HA coating with dense morphology was obtained after heat treatment at 500xc2x0 C. for 12-24 hours.
Phosphorus alkoxides, i.e. triethyl phosphate and triethyl phosphite, have been used as the phosphorus precursors for sol-gel HA synthesis in recent years [11-15,19,21-23]. The hydrolysis activity of the triethyl phosphate is poor and a higher solution temperature together with a prolonged time period (i.e. several days) is needed to form HA phase [19].
A novel sol-gel process for calcium phosphates, in particular hydroxyapatite (HA) synthesis is disclosed. The process allows the calcium phosphate to be obtained in a well crystallized form, at relatively low temperature, i.e. approximately 350xc2x0 C. The crystallinity of the calcium phosphate phase obtained through the novel inventive process can be enhanced by appropriate use of water treatment during processing. Variation of Ca/P ratio in the sol-gel precursor mix allows one to obtain other than calcium phosphate phases, for example, hydroxyapatite, dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate or tetracalcium phosphate.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a process which permits early osseointegration, or accelerated development of mechanical strength between an implant and adjacent bone. Bone in-growth into the interstices of the Endopore Dental Implant System is performed through deposition of thin (1-5 xcexcm), uniform film of hydroxyapatite (HA) bioceramic coating into the open surface pores of the implant. The invention involves a novel sol-gel low-temperature route to thin-film HA coatings, which penetrate the pores and provide favorable micro-environment for accelerated bone in-growth and interlocking. The water-based sol-gel method according to the invention can produce well-crystallized HA coatings after heat treatment in air at only 350xc2x0 C. This low crystallization temperature prevents undesirable deterioration (e.g. oxidation) of the Ti alloy implant surface.
The invention in one embodiment is directed to a sol-gel process for preparing a crystallized calcium phosphate, such as hydroxyapatite, which comprises: (a) hydrolysing a phosphor precursor in a water based medium; (b) adding a calcium salt precursor to the medium after the phosphite has been hydrolysed to obtain a calcium phosphate gel such as a hydroxyapatite gel; and (c) calcining the crystallized calcium phosphate, such as hydroxyapatite, at a suitable elevated temperature.
The phosphor precursor can be an alkyl phosphite and the alkyl phosphite can be triethyl phosphite. The calcium precursor can be a water soluble calcium salt and the water soluble calcium salt can be calcium nitrate.
The crystallized calcium phosphate can be calcined at a temperature of at least about 350xc2x0 C. The crystallized calcium phosphate gel can be deposited on a titanium substrate.
The triethyl phosphite can be dissolved in a water-ethanol mixture. The calcium nitrate can be dissolved in anhydrous ethanol. The gel obtained by step (b) can be left to stand at ambient temperature for about eight hours, and can then be dried at a temperature of about 60xc2x0 C.
In the specification and the claims, it is understood that when appropriate, the term xe2x80x9ccalcium phosphatexe2x80x9d is used generically and includes minerals such as hydroxyapatite, dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate and tetracalcium phosphate. Initial studies on the novel sol-gel route to calcium phosphate coatings performed by the inventors have led to an unexpected breakthrough in process development. The novel water-based method according to the invention has produced well-crystallized HA coatings and other calcium phosphate coatings after heat treatment in air at only 350C. This low crystallization temperature prevents any deterioration (e.g. oxidation) of the Ti alloy implant surface.
The invention pertains to a novel sol-gel (SG) process for water-based synthesis of calcium phosphate, in particular, hydroxyapatite (HA). The process allows the HA to be obtained in a crystallized form, at a relatively low temperature, i.e. xcx9c350xc2x0 C. This is an unexpectedly low crystallization temperature for HA sol-gel synthesis. The process provides excellent chemical and physical homogeneity of HA coatings. The low process temperature avoids substrate metal degradation due to thermally-induced phase transformation, microstructure deterioration, or oxidation.
A novel process route to well-crystallized calcium phosphate ceramics at low temperature has been invented. In the first stage of the process, phosphite sol was hydrolysed in a water-ethanol mixture (a concentration of 3M) in a sealed beaker until the phosphite was completely hydrolysed (which is easily recognized by loss of a characteristic phosphite odour), at ambient environment. A Ca salt (2M) was then dissolved in anhydrous ethanol, and the solution was then rapidly added into the hydrolysed phosphite sol. The sol was left at ambient environment for 8 hours, followed by drying in an oven at 60xc2x0 C. As a result of this process, a white gel was obtained. For the sol containing Ca/P ratio required to produce HA, the gel showed a pure (single phase) apatitic structure with a Ca/P ratio of 1.666, identical to stoichiometric HA, after calcining at a temperature as low as 350xc2x0 C. Varying the Ca/P ratio allows other calcium phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate (Ca/P=1) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca/P=1.5), to be obtained. A coating produced using this process, and applied to Ti substrate, showed sufficient adhesive strength after curing at a temperature  less than 450xc2x0 C. The coating was crack-free and porous.
In another variant of the process, a pure water-based environment was used. The aqueous-based sols were prepared in the same manner as described above for the ethanol-based system. A higher rate of hydrolysis of the phosphite sol was observed. The mixed sol was dried while stirring. After 8 hours aging, a white gel appeared. For the sol containing a Ca/P ratio required to produce HA an apatitic structure with Ca/P ratio of 1.663, close to stoichiometric HA, resulted after calcining the gel at a temperature of 350xc2x0 C. Both the ethanol-based and aqueous-based gels showed essentially the same apatitic structure at relatively low temperatures. This invention provides a method of synthesizing the HA ceramics via an aqueous-based sol-gel process.
The process for SG synthesis of calcium phosphate, in particular HA, bioactive ceramics disclosed herein offers the following advantages in comparison to existing sol-gel processes:
(1) The process can be completed in ambient environment (i.e. air), rather than in a controlled atmosphere.
(2) Loss of phosphorus-bearing compound is negligible.
(3) The synthesis requires short processing time ( less than 24 hours) for HA sol preparation.
(4) The synthesis requires lower temperature (350xc2x0 C.) and shorter time ( less than 2 hours) of calcination for formation of high quality HA.
(5) The synthesis results in easy-to-form adhesive HA coating (on Ti substrate) at relatively low temperatures, which is a big advantage for biomedical applications.
(6) Porous HA coatings can be produced, which allows circulation of the physiological fluid throughout the coating structure and is potentially beneficial for biological events.
(7) Low temperature calcination of the novel HA coating on metals (such as Ti) permits thermal treatment in an air environment without the risk of severe metal oxidation and possible property degradation due to microstructural deterioration or phase transformations.
(8) A pure water-based solvent can be used for the HA synthesis, addressing both economic and ecological concerns.
Triethyl phosphite and calcium nitrate have been used as P and Ca precursors for HA synthesis. The hygroscopic nature of the triethyl phosphite enables the sol preparation to be conducted under dried atmosphere. In prior systems, non-aqueous solvents have been used for sol preparation. The phosphorus sol has been prepared by diluting and hydrolysing the phosphite in either pure water or a mixture of anhydrous ethanol and a small amount of water, followed by addition of Ca sol after the phosphite is hydrolysed. Experimental results have indicated that through this novel process a pure, well-crystallized HA phase can be synthesized at relatively low temperatures. The 350xc2x0 C. crystallization of HA resulting from this process occurs at a temperature that is lower by about 200xc2x0 C. to 300xc2x0 C., than prior processes reported in the prior art. In fact, a temperature of 350xc2x0 C. is an unexpectedly low and heretofore unknown temperature for the sol-gel processing of crystalline HA. This discovery means that the crystallization of HA structure can be significantly promoted at the sol, and then the gel preparation stages. Although the exact mechanism for the low-temperature crystallization of HA is not clear at present, and not wishing to be adversely bound by any theories, the presence of large amount of hydroxyl species originating from the initial water content in the dried gel may be a possible cause.
The temperature that is required to form the apatitic HA structure through SG depends largely on the chemical nature of the precursors. For example, calcium diethoxide (Ca(OEt)2) and triethyl phosphate (PO(OEt)3) can be used to form pure HA phase at temperatures above 600xc2x0 C. Aging time longer than 24 h is critical for the solution system to stabilize such that a monophasic HA can be produced. Otherwise, large weight loss during pyrolysis and undesirable phases, such as CaO, can be observed.
A mixture of HA and CaO results at 775xc2x0 C. if calcium acetate (Ca(C2H3O2)2) and triethyl phosphate are used as precursors. A further hydrochloric acid leaching is required in that process to eliminate CaO, leading to a pure HA phase. Low purity and poor crystallinity HA can be obtained at a temperatures as low as 400xc2x0 C. using calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O) and phenyldichlorophosphite (C6H5PCl2) as precursors. An increase of the synthesis temperature to 900xc2x0 C. resulted in pure, well-crystallized HA phase.
Triethyl phosphite offers a high activity for hydrolysis [35,36] and a recent 31P NMR study revealed a valance transition from P(III) to P(V) upon ageing with Ca precursor to form HA within 24hr [15]. This indicates a nucleophilic addition of negatively-charged OHxe2x88x92 groups to the positively-charged metal P, leading to an increased coordination number of the phosphorus atom which is essentially an indication towards the polymerization reaction [36]. After subsequent protonation of the alkoxide ligands (xe2x80x94OR) and removal of the charged ligand (xe2x80x94OR)+, Pxe2x80x94(OR) is hydrolysing to form Pxe2x80x94(OH) [24,34], following interaction with Ca precursor to develop the apatitic structure. Upon aging, the hydrolysed phosphorus sol (which may be in a form of phosphoric ester [11,36], P(OH)(OEt)2, or more generally, P(OEt)3xe2x88x92x(OH)x) interacts with Ca sol, possibly in the form of Ca(OEt)y(NO3)2xe2x88x92y in anhydrous ethanol and Ca++ in water, to form oligomeric derivatives containing Caxe2x80x94Oxe2x80x94P bonds.
For the ethanol-based process, the reaction may proceed as follows:
P(OEt)3xe2x88x92x(OH)x+Ca(NO3)2xe2x88x92y(OEt)yxe2x86x92(OEt)y,(NO3)2xe2x88x92y,xe2x80x94Caxe2x80x94Oxe2x80x94P(OH)x,(OEt)3xe2x88x92x,+H2O+C2H5OH.
For aqueous-based process, an ionic derivative may possibly be developed by:
P(OEt)3xe2x88x92x(OH)x+Ca+2+NO3xe2x88x921xe2x86x92(NO3)xe2x88x921(OH)xe2x80x94Caxe2x80x94Oxe2x80x94P(OH)xxe2x80x2(OEt)3xe2x88x92xxe2x80x2+H++C2H5OH+H2O.
These reactions are rather simplified and idealized chemical forms, but offer some help in understanding of phase formation through the proposed process.